Chapter 16: 19 th –20 th Century

Pre-reading

A. Skim and scan the following passage and answer the following questions.

1. What were the particular features of the first International ?

2. What were the particular features of the second International?

3. What were the particular features of the third International ？

4. What are the particular features of Realism in art ?

5. What are the particular features of Realism in literature?

6. What are the particular features of Realism in philosophy ？

7. What are the particular features of Naturalism in literature ?

8. What are the particular features of Naturalism in philosophy ?

9. What makes Naturalism different from Realism?

Reading

International is the common name of various socialist organizations, all of which aspired to be expressions of supranational working-class solidarity.

In 1864, representatives of English and French industrial workers founded the International Workingmen's Association in London , abandoning the secret socialist brotherhoods of the past in favor of an open and more permanent alliance dedicated to the overthrow of the capitalist system. Karl Marx, then living in London , was elected to the International's provisional general council. He became the dominant figure in the International, drafting its general rules and a carefully worded inaugural address that was designed to safeguard unity of purpose. From the first, however, anarchist followers of Pierre Joseph Proudhon and Mikhail Bakunin opposed Marx's model of a centralized state dominated by the workers. Bakunin precipitated an organizational crisis by denouncing Marx's despotic manner and calling for the creation of an “antiauthoritarian” International. At The Hague Congress of 1872, Marx prevailed, and Bakunin was expelled from the International. In the wake of the Marxist-anarchist split, however, the decision was made to remove the general council to the U.S. , where it maintained a shadow existence until it was formally dissolved in 1876. Although the First International caused anxiety in European political circles, it never numbered more than 25,000 individual members and was chronically short of funds.

In 1889, the centenary of the beginning of the French Revolution, two socialist congresses met in Paris . One of them, Marxist-inspired, inaugurated what came to be known as the Second International. A loose federation of mass parties, the new organization established a coordinating office, the International Socialist Bureau ( Brussels ), in 1900. The International met nine times at irregular intervals before World War I. At the London Congress of 1896, the anarchists were expelled, leaving the Marxists—above all the German Marxists—in a position of undisputed leadership. The Germans, although they continued to proclaim Marx's revolutionary theories, were now working for reform within Germany 's legal framework. Many French Marxists were taking the same approach. In 1899, the French socialist Alexandre Millerand accepted a post in the nonsocialist cabinet of René Waldeck-Rousseau. In the same year the German socialist leader Eduard Bernstein published his Evolutionary Socialism (trans. 1909), a revision of Marx's teachings that rejected the inevitability of revolution and proposed collaboration with non-Marxist parties to achieve socialist aims. Bernstein's views were opposed by Karl Kautsky, leader of the orthodox German Marxists. A parallel conflict undermined the International's efforts to prevent a European war. Ideologically committed to peace and internationalism, European socialists could not reconcile themselves to the military defeat of their own nations, within which they constituted recognized subcultures. When World War I broke out in 1914, national allegiances proved to be stronger than class commitments, and most socialists backed the war efforts of their respective governments. This marked the end of the Second International, although efforts to reorganize the group did not end until 1920.

In March 1919, following the Russian Revolution, V. I. Lenin, the Marxist leader of the new Soviet government, organized a new International, popularly known as the Communist International, or Comintern, to promote world revolution on the Russian Communist model. The founding congress elected as President Grigory Zinovyev, one of Lenin's lieutenants, and appointed an executive committee to ensure continuity between congresses. The Second Congress (1920) adopted 21 membership conditions that reflected Lenin's insistence on unqualified obedience and his contempt for the Second International's reformist socialism. By the time Lenin died in 1924, the revolutionary tide had receded in Europe , and dreams of a world socialist revolution had begun to give place to the more pragmatic ideas of Lenin's successor, Joseph Stalin. For Stalin, the Comintern was little more than a means of protecting his absolute power at home and of increasing Soviet influence abroad. Radical and seemingly inexplicable shifts in Comintern policy, particularly with respect to the question of political cooperation with non-Communists, were dictated by Stalin's domestic intrigues and foreign-policy strategies. As a concession to his U.S. and British allies during World War II, Stalin did not hesitate to dissolve the Comintern in May 1943.

In October 1947,  the Soviet Union arranged a meeting in Poland for the Communist parties of nine countries: USSR , Bulgaria , Czechoslovakia , Hungary , Poland , Romania , Yugoslavia , France , and Italy . At this meeting the Cominform was founded and designated as a the coordinating agency for party policy among participating countries. The organization's intentions, however, appeared to be more ambitious. In Yugoslavia , in particular, where Communist leader Tito (Josip Broz) was adopting independent policies, it looked as though Cominform's purpose was to suppress nonconformity and increase the Soviet Communist sphere of influence. Although Cominform headquarters was initially located in Belgrade , Tito's determination to assert Yugoslavia 's independence led to his party's expulsion in June 1948. On April 17, 1956, the Cominform was dissolved as part of Nikita Khrushchev's effort to effect a Soviet-Yugoslav reconciliation.The failure of the Internationals was due in large measure to the inherent contradiction between the theory of the supranational solidarity of the working class and the reality of national rivalry within the socialist movement. Since World War II, socialists and Communists have attempted to identify themselves, in theory as well as in practice, with national traditions and aspirations.

Socialism refers to an economic and social doctrine, or the political movement inspired by this doctrine, and system or order established when this doctrine is organized in a society. The socialist doctrine demands state ownership and control of the fundamental means of production and distribution of wealth, to be achieved by reconstruction of the existing capitalist or other political system of a country through peaceful, democratic, and parliamentary means. The doctrine specifically advocates nationalization of natural resources, basic industries, banking and credit facilities, and public utilities. It places special emphasis on the nationalization of monopolized branches of industry and trade, viewing monopolies as inimical to the public welfare. It also advocates state ownership of corporations in which the ownership function has passed from stockholders to managerial personnel. Smaller and less vital enterprises would be left under private ownership, and privately held cooperatives would be encouraged. These are the tenets of the Socialist party of the U.S. , the Labour party of Britain , and labor or social democratic parties of various other countries. Therefore they constitute the centrist position held by most socialists. Some political movements calling themselves socialist, however, insist on the complete abolition of the capitalist system and of private profit, and at the other extreme are socialist programs having objectives entailing even fewer changes in the social order than those outlined above. The ultimate goal of all socialists, however, is a classless cooperative commonwealth in every nation of the world.

The terms  socialism  and communism were once used interchangeably. Today, however, communism designates those theories and movements that, in accordance with one view of the teachings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, advocate the abolition of capitalism and all private profit, by means of violent revolution if necessary. Marx organized the International Workingmen's Association, or First International; when this congress met at Geneva in 1866, it was the first international forum for the promulgation of Communist doctrine. This doctrine was later explained by Lenin, who defined a socialist society as one in which the workers, free from capitalist exploitation, receive the full product of their labor. Most socialists deny the claim of Communists to have achieved socialism in the USSR , which they regarded as an authoritarian tyranny. But after World War II, many Communist-led political parties in the Soviet sphere of influence still used the designation socialist in their names. In East Germany (now part of the united Federal Republic of Germany), for example, the name adopted by the merged Communist and Social Democratic parties was the Socialist Unity party. The modern socialist movement, as distinguished from communism, had its origin largely in the revisionist movement of the late 19th century. The worsening condition of the proletariat, or workers, and the class war predicted by Marx for Western Europe had not come about. Many socialist thinkers began to doubt the indispensability of revolution and to revise other basic tenets of Marxism. Led by the German writer Eduard Bernstein, they declared that socialism could best be attained by reformist, parliamentary, and evolutionary methods, including the support of the bourgeoisie.

Such a view was held by the founders of the Fabian Society, organized in 1884 by a group of middle-class intellectuals. The Fabians in turn helped to form the British Independent Labour party in 1893; it became affiliated with the newly organized Labour party in 1906. In the U.S. a Socialist Labor party was founded in 1877. This party, small as it was, became fragmented in the 1890s. In 1901 a moderate faction of the party under Morris Hillquit joined with the Social Democratic party of Eugene V. Debs and the Christian Socialists of George D. Herron to form the Socialist party. The moderate, or revisionist, type of socialism found its clearest expression in the organization in Paris in 1889 of the Second International. This body differed from the First International in that it was merely a coordinator of the activities of its affiliated political parties and trade unions. The Second International also diverged in ideology; a majority of its members, led by Eduard Bernstein, were revisionists. The left-wing minority was led by Lenin and the German revolutionist Rosa Luxemburg; a third element, Marxist but opposed to Lenin, was led by the German theorist Karl Kautsky. The Second International declared its opposition to the preparations for war being made by most European governments.

When World War I began in 1914, modern European socialist leaders supported their respective governments. Leaders of the Socialist party in the U.S. and of the Labour party of Britain did not. Spokespersons for the left wing, led by Lenin, labeled the war an imperialist struggle and urged the workers of the world to convert the war into a proletarian revolution or to turn the imperialist war into a class war. This ideological conflict resulted in the collapse of the Second International. Revived after World War I, it was never again important. Despite the decline of the Second International , socialist parties made substantial gains during the years following World War I and during World War II. In Britain , the Labour party under Ramsay MacDonald was in power for ten months in 1924 and again from 1929 to 1931, but it lacked parliamentary majorities and accomplished little. In Australia the Labor party held office from 1929 to 1932, from 1941 to 1949, and from 1972 to 1975. The Labour government of New Zealand , elected in 1935, remained in power until 1949. In Scandinavia, candidates of the Social Democratic parties of Denmark , Norway , and Sweden were elected to high positions early in the 1920s; these parties subsequently became dominant in Scandinavia .

During the 1920s and '30s socialist and Communist parties were in continuous conflict. One point of contention was the question of support for the USSR . Socialists castigated Communists as agents of the Soviet Union and traitors to their own countries. Also during the '20s and '30s, Fascist regimes in Germany and Italy caused both socialists and Communists to develop new tactics. Attempts were made in several countries to form a united front of all working-class organizations opposed to fascism, but the movement had limited success, even in France and Spain , where it did well in the 1936 elections. Failure of the Communists and socialists of Germany to unite is regarded as one cause of the success of the National Socialists. The fragile alliance that was achieved between socialists and Communists in some countries during this “Popular Front” period was destroyed in 1939 by the conclusion of a nonaggression pact between Germany and the USSR . Socialists condemned this act as a demonstration of the community of interest between two totalitarian governments. In August 1939, Germany invaded Poland , precipitating World War II, and socialists in the Allied countries immediately expressed full support for their governments.

An upsurge occurred in support of socialist parties after the war, chiefly in Western Europe . The greatest advance was scored in Britain in 1945; the victorious Labour party had in its campaign advocated the socialization of the British economy. In ensuing years individual socialists won victories and in some instances formed governments in France , Italy , Belgium , the Netherlands , Norway , Sweden , and numerous other European countries. The Socialist International , similar to the Second International , was organized in 1951 in Frankfurt , West Germany . In Asia, socialism made progress in India , Burma (now known as Myanmar ), and Japan ; the Asian Socialist Conference was formed as the Eastern equivalent of the Socialist International . The Soviet satellites, the “People's Democracies” of Eastern Europe, including Poland, Czechoslovakia (now the Czech Republic and Slovakia), Hungary, Bulgaria, and Romania, came under the control of Communist-Socialist parties, but these were dominated in all cases by Communists. China established a Communist government, as did Albania and, later, Cuba . Emerging nations of Africa, Asia, and Latin America frequently adopted social systems that were largely socialist in orientation. In many instances, these nations took over properties held by foreign owners. The influence of the Socialist party of the U.S. , led from 1924 to 1968 by Norman Thomas, gradually declined, although much of its economic program became law under the New Deal of President Franklin D. Roosevelt.

The period following World War II was also marked by intensification of the conflict between socialists and Communists. Socialists approved such measures, initiated in the U.S. and supported by the governments of Western Europe, as the European Recovery Program and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, declaring that the former would stem the tide of totalitarian communism by raising living standards and that the latter would achieve the same end by strengthening Western Europe militarily. Communists denounced these measures as imperialist preparations for war against the USSR .

Socialist political parties have suffered occasional setbacks in elections in those countries in which they form half of the two-party system, as in New Zealand in 1975 (they had been in power from 1957 to 1960 and from 1972 to 1975) and in Britain in 1979 (after five years in power). Nonetheless, extensive and fundamental parts of the socialist program are permanent features of contemporary economic and social life.

Realism  in art and literature refers to an attempt to describe human behavior and surroundings or to represent figures and objects exactly as they act or appear in life. Attempts at realism have been made periodically throughout history in all the arts; the term is, however, generally restricted to a movement that began in the mid-19th century, in reaction to the highly subjective approach of romanticism. The difference between realism and naturalism is harder to define, however, and the two terms are often used interchangeably. The distinction lies in the fact that realism is concerned directly with what is absorbed by the senses; naturalism, a term more properly applied to literature, attempts to apply scientific theories to art.

In art, although a clearly defined realist school has never evolved, a realist approach has been manifested in different ways at various times. The term realist, used to describe a work of art, has often simply meant that “ugly” objects or figures are represented, as opposed to those considered “beautiful.” Frequently used to describe scenes of humble life, the term implies a criticism of social conditions. Thus, some of the work of the French artists Gustave Courbet, Honoré Daumier, and Jean Fran?ois Millet has been described as social realism. In the United States , William Sidney Mount's quiet Long Island scene Eel Spearing at Setauket (1845) is in the realist style; the artist portrays his subjects with simplicity and respect but little elaboration. Mount diverges in style from the romanticism of his contemporaries of the Hudson River School . American realist painting also includes the honest, matter-of-fact portraits by Thomas Eakins, of his contemporaries, and the works of the American artists known collectively as the Ashcan school or The Eight, who at the beginning of the 20th century attempted to paint the American urban scene as it really was.

Realist literature is defined particularly as the fiction produced in Europe and the United States from about 1840 until the 1890s, when realism was superseded by naturalism. This form of realism began in France in the novels of Gustave Flaubert and the short stories of Guy de Maupassant. In Russia , realism was represented in the plays and short stories of Anton Chekhov. The novelist George Eliot introduced realism into English fiction; as she declared in Adam Bede (1859), her purpose was to give a “faithful representation of commonplace things.” Mark Twain and William Dean Howells were the pioneers of realism in the United States . One of the greatest realists of all, the Anglo-American novelist Henry James, drew much inspiration from his mentors, Eliot and Howells. James's concern with character motivation and behavior led to the development of a subgenre, the psychological novel. In general, the work of these writers illustrates the main principle of realism, that writers must not select facts in accord with preconceived aesthetic or ethical ideals but must set down their observations impartially and objectively. Concerned with the faithful representation of life, which frequently lacks form, the realists tend to downplay plot in favor of character and to concentrate on middle-class life and preoccupations, avoiding larger, more dramatic issues.

Realism in philosophy is a term used for two distinct doctrines of epistemology. In modern philosophy, it is applied to the doctrine that ordinary objects of sense perception, such as tables and chairs, have an existence independent of their being perceived. In this sense, it is contrary to the idealism of philosophers such as George Berkeley or Immanuel Kant. In its extreme form, sometimes called naive realism, the things perceived by the senses are believed to be exactly what they appear to be. In more sophisticated versions, sometimes referred to as critical realism, some explanation is given of the relationship between the object and the observer that accounts for the possibility of illusion, hallucination, and other perceptual errors.

In medieval philosophy, the term realism referred to a position that regarded Platonic Forms, or universals, as real. That position is now usually called Platonic realism. In Plato's philosophy, a common noun, such as bed, refers to the ideal nature of the object, which is conveyed by its definition, and this ideal nature has metaphysical existence independent of the particular objects of that type. Thus, circularity ( 环状 ) exists independent of particular circles; justice, independent of particular just individuals or just states; and “bedness,” independent of particular beds. In the Middle Ages, this position was defended against nominalism ( 唯名论 ), which denied the existence of such universals. Nominalists asserted that the many objects called by one name shared nothing but the name. Compromises between these two positions included moderate realism, which claimed that the universal existed in the many objects of the same type but not independent of them, and conceptualism ( 概念论 ), which held that the universal might exist independent of the many objects of that particular type, but only as an idea in the mind, not as a self-subsisting ( 自我维持的 ) metaphysical entity ( 实体 ).

Naturalism in literature refers to the theory that literary composition should be based on an objective, empirical presentation of human beings. It differs from realism in adding an amoral attitude to the objective presentation of life. Naturalistic writers regard human behavior as controlled by instinct, emotion, or social and economic conditions, and reject free will, adopting instead, in large measure, the biological determinism of Charles Darwin and the economic determinism of Karl Marx.

Naturalism was first prominently exhibited in the writings of 19th-century French authors, especially Edmond Louis Antoine de Goncourt, his brother Jules Alfred Huot de Goncourt, and émile Zola. The latter, inspired by his readings in history and medicine, attempted to apply methods of scientific observation to the depiction of pathological human character, notably in his series of novels devoted to several generations of one French family. His essay “The Experimental Novel” (1880; trans. 1893) explains his theory of literary naturalism. One of the first American exponents of naturalism was Frank Norris, whose novel McTeague (1899) is a classic study of the interplay between instinctual drives and environmental conditions. Other notable writers of naturalistic fiction were Sherwood Anderson, John Dos Passos, Theodore Dreiser, and James T. Farrell.

Naturalism in philosophy refers to a movement affirming that nature is the whole of reality and can be understood only through scientific investigation. Naturalism denies the existence of the supernatural and deemphasizing metaphysics, or the study of the ultimate nature of reality, and affirms that cause-and-effect relationships, as in physics and chemistry, are sufficient to account for all phenomena. Teleological ( 目的论的 ) conceptions, which suggest design & metaphysical ( 超自然的 ) necessity in nature, while not necessarily invalid, are excluded from consideration. The ethical ( 伦理的 ) implication, since the naturalist denies any transcendent or supernatural end for humankind, is that values must be found within the social context. It is impossible to determine what is best in an ultimate context, because the ultimate is beyond discovery. Values, therefore, are relative, and ethics is based on custom, inclination, or some form of utilitarianism, ( 功利主义 ) the doctrine that what is useful is good.

Naturalism is rooted in British empiricism ( 经验主义 ), the doctrine that all knowledge is derived from experience, and in European positivism ( 实证主义 ), the doctrine that denies any validity to metaphysical speculation. It came to full flower in the late 19th- and 20th-century works of the American philosophers George Santayana, John Dewey, and their followers.

Test yourself

Fill the blanks each by referring to the question given:

1. What is socialism by definition? What were the distinctive features of the western socialist movement? What is social-democratism by definition?

Socialism refers to an economic __ social doctrine, the political movement __ by this doctrine, and system __ order established when this doctrine __ organized in a society. The __ doctrine demands state ownership and __ of the fundamental means of __ and distribution of wealth, to __ achieved by reconstruction of the __ capitalist or other political system __ a country through peaceful, democratic, __ parliamentary means. The doctrine specifically __ nationalization of natural resources, basic __ , banking and credit facilities, and __ utilities. It places special emphasis __ the nationalization of monopolized branches __ industry and trade, viewing monopolies __ harmful to the public welfare. __ also advocates state ownership of __ in which the ownership function __ passed from stockholders to managerial __ . Smaller and less vital enterprises __ be left under private ownership, __ held cooperatives encouraged. These are __ beliefs of the Labour party __ Britain , and labor or social __ parties of various other countries. __ socialists may insist on the __ abolition of the capitalist system __ of private profit, while some __ intend to result __ even fewer changes in the __ order than those outlined above. __ , their ultimate goal is a __ cooperative commonwealth in every nation __ the world.

2. What distinguishes Marxist doctrine from the western socialist doctrine? Who is supposed to be the founder of the western socialist movement?

Socialism and communism were once __ interchangeably. Today, communism refers to __ and movements that, in accordance __ one view of the teachings __ Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, __ the abolition of capitalism and __ private profit, by means of __ revolution if necessary. Marx organized __ International Workingmen's Association; when this __ met at Geneva in 1866, __ was the first international forum __ promote Communist doctrine. This doctrine __ later explained by Lenin, who __ a socialist society as one __ which the workers, free from __ exploitation, receive the full product __ their labor. Most socialists deny __ claim of Communists to have __ socialism in the USSR , which __ regarded as dictatorship. But after __ War II, many Communist-led political __ in the Soviet sphere of __ still used the term socialist __ their names. The modern socialist __ , as distinguished from communism, had __ origin largely in the revisionist __ of the late 19th century. __ worsening condition of the proletariat, __ workers, and the class war __ by Marx for Western Europe __ not come about. Many socialist __ began to doubt the necessity __ revolution and to revise other __ beliefs of Marxism. Led by __ German writer Eduard Bernstein, they __ that socialism could best be __ by reformist, parliamentary, and evolutionary __ , including the support of the __ .

3. What was the development of socialism like after World War II? What is Socialist International? When was it founded?

An upsurge occurred in support __ socialist parties after the war, __ in Western Europe . The greatest __ was scored in Britain in __ ; the Labour party had in __ campaign advocated the socialization of __ British economy. In the following __ individual socialists won victories and __ formed governments in many European __ . In 1951 the Socialist International __ organized in Frankfurt . In Asia, __ made progress in India , Burma , __ Japan ; the Asian Socialist Conference __ formed as the Eastern equivalent __ the Socialist International. The Soviet __ , the "People's Democracies" of Eastern __ , including Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria, __ Romania, came under the control __ Communist-Socialist parties, but these were __ in all cases by Communists. __ established a Communist government, as __ Albania and, later, Cuba . Emerging __ of Africa, Asia , and Latin __ frequently adopted social systems that __ largely socialist in orientation. In __ instances, these nations took over __ held by foreign owners. The __ of the Socialist party of __ U.S. , led from 1924 to __ by Norman Thomas, gradually declined, __ much of its economic program __ law under the New Deal __ President Franklin D. Roosevelt.

4. What are the particular features of Realism in art?

Realism in art and literature __ an attempt to describe human __ and surroundings or to represent __ and objects exactly as they __ or appear in life. Attempts __ realism have been made periodically __ history in all the arts; __ term is generally restricted to __ movement that began in the __ century, in reaction to the __ subjective approach of romanticism. __ term realist has often __ meant that "ugly" objects or __ are represented, as opposed to __ considered "beautiful." Frequently used to __ scenes of humble life, it __ a criticism of social conditions. __ , some of the work of __ French artists Gustave Courbet (for __ , The Stonebreakers,1850), and Jean Francois __ has been described as social __ . In the United States, William __ Mount's quiet Long Island scene __ Spearing at Setauket (1845) is __ the realist style; the artist __ his subjects with simplicity and __ but little elaboration. Mount diverges __ style from the romanticism of __ contemporaries of the Hudson River __ . American realist painting also includes __ honest, matter-of-fact portraits by Thomas __ , of his contemporaries, and the __ of the American artists known __ as the Ashcan school or __ Eight, who at the beginning __ the 20th century attempted to __ the American urban scene as __ really was.

5. What are the particular features of Realism in literature?

Realist literature is defined particularly __ the fiction produced in Europe __ the United States from about __ until the 1890s, when realism __ superseded by naturalism. This form __ realism began in France in __ novels of Gustave Flaubert and __ short stories of Guy de __ . In Russia , realism was represented __ the plays and short stories __ Anton Chekhov. The novelist George __ introduced realism into English fiction; __ she declared in Adam Bede ( __ ), her purpose was to give __ "faithful representation of commonplace things." __ Twain and William Dean Howells __ the pioneers of realism in __ United States . One of the __ realists of all, the Anglo-American __ Henry James, drew much inspiration __ his mentors, Eliot and Howells. __ 's concern with character motivation and __ led to the development of __ subgenre, the psychological novel. In __ , the work of these writers __ the main doctrine of realism, __ writers must not select facts __ accord with preconceived aesthetic or __ ideals but must set down __ observations impartially and objectively. Concerned __ the faithful representation of life, __ frequently lacks form, the realists __ to downplay plot in favor __ character and to concentrate on __ life and concerns, avoiding larger, __ dramatic issues.

6. What are the particular features of Realism in philosophy ？

In modern philosophy, realism refers __ the doctrine that ordinary objects __ sense perception, such as tables __ chairs, have an existence independent __ their being perceived; it is __ to the idealism of philosophers __ as George Berkeley or Immanuel __ . In its extreme form, sometimes __ naive realism, the things perceived __ the senses are believed to __ exactly what they appear to __ . In more sophisticated versions, sometimes __ to as critical realism, some __ is given of the relationship __ the object and the observer __ explains the possibility of illusion, __ sense perception, and other perceptual __ .

In medieval philosophy, __ referred to a doctrine called __ realism now. Plato believes a __ noun, such as bed, refers __ the ideal nature of the __ , which is conveyed by its __ , and this ideal nature has __ metaphysical existence independent of the __ objects of that type. Thus, " __ " exists independent of particular beds. __ the Middle Ages, this position __ defended against nominalism, which denied __ existence of such universals. Nominalists __ that the many objects called __ one name shared nothing but __ name. Compromises between these two __ included moderate realism, which claimed __ the universal existed in the __ objects of the same type __ not independent of them, and __ , which held that the universal __ exist independent of the many __ of that particular type, but __ as an idea in the __ .

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